Plant Profile & Key Characteristics
Overview: A fast-growing annual culinary herb of the mint family, reaching about 0.5-1 m (20-40 in). It is grown chiefly for its aromatic edible leaves and is also used ornamentally for its colourful green-to-purple foliage.
Quick Specifications
| Specification | Attribute |
|---|---|
| Plant Type / Life Cycle | Annual (self-seeds readily) |
| Foliage Type | Deciduous (soft annual foliage) |
| Mature Size | 0.5-1 m (20-40 in) tall |
| Growth Rate | Fast to moderate |
| Toxicity | Edible for people (a widely used culinary leaf); note the foliage can be toxic to grazing cattle and horses |
| Hardiness | Grown as a warm-season annual across USDA zones 3-11 |
Growth Form & Structure
- Height & Spread: Forms an upright, bushy plant 0.5-1 m (20-40 in) tall in the ground; grows well in a 5-12 L (1.5-3 gal) container.
- Growth Habit & Form: An erect, branching herbaceous annual on square mint-family stems, best kept leafy by pinching out flower spikes.
- Lifespan & Maturity: Completes its cycle in one season, cropping leaves from roughly 7-10 leaves onward; it self-seeds freely to return the next year.
Anatomy & Physical Features
- Leaves & Foliage: Aromatic, broadly deltoid leaves with serrated edges, green or purple (sometimes green above and purple beneath); crinkled in the frilly forms.
- Flower Characteristics: Small flowers on slender spikes, the inflorescence green or purple; usually removed to prolong leaf quality.
Primary Uses & Landscape Value
- Edible Uses: Leaves are used fresh in salads, as a wrap and garnish, and cooked in stir-fries and savoury dishes; a staple herb in East Asian cooking.
- Functional & Ornamental Roles: A dual-purpose herb and colourful foliage plant for kitchen gardens, borders and containers.
Care Guide: Planting, Soil & Watering
Overview: Shiso (Perilla frutescens var. crispa) is a fast-growing warm-season annual herb (hardiness zones 3–11) grown for its aromatic, colourful edible leaves. It does best in full sun to light shade in rich, slightly acidic, organic soil kept evenly moist.
Quick Care Requirements
| Requirement | Ideal Condition |
|---|---|
| Planting Season | After last frost in cool zones; mid-winter in hot, frost-free zones (10b–11) |
| Growth Rate | Moderate to Fast |
| Soil Type | Rich, light, organic and well-draining |
| Soil pH | Slightly acidic |
| Water Need | Moderate to High – keep evenly moist, more in heat |
Planting & Establishment
- Best Planting Season: Plant after the last frost in cooler zones (3–10a); in hot, frost-free zones (10b–11) plant in mid-winter to get ahead of the summer heat.
- How to Plant:
- Hole Preparation: Better to start from seed or young plants than to move a mature plant, as transplanting established specimens is unreliable; set young plants into loosened, moisture-retentive soil.
- Soil Amendments: Use light soil rich in organic matter; a little vermiculite or mulch helps hold moisture in warm spells.
- Planting Depth: Set young plants at the depth they grew, keep the root collar level with the soil, then mulch around them to conserve moisture.
- Growth Speed & Expectations: A fast grower that bulks up quickly through the warm season; pinch out flower spikes to keep leaves tender.
Soil, Watering & Drainage Care
- Soil Mix & Drainage Needs: Prefers light, rich, well-drained soil high in organic matter and slightly acidic; vermiculite or mulch helps hold moisture. Keep drainage free so roots stay moist but never waterlogged.
- Watering Schedule & Technique:
- Young / Newly Planted: Water generously in the first days after planting – especially during spring heat waves – and mulch to hold moisture.
- Established: Keep the soil evenly moist; water more in hot weather, when the plant’s demand rises sharply.
- Seasonal Adjustments: Increase watering in heat and reduce as temperatures cool toward the end of the season.
Climate, Light & Hardiness
Shiso (Perilla frutescens var. crispa) is grown across temperate, mediterranean, and subtropical climates as a warm-season annual, preferring full sun with some afternoon shade where summers run hot. Its listed USDA range of zone 3 through 11 reflects where it is cultivated as an annual crop, since it is frost-sensitive and also stressed by high heat.
Quick Climate Specifications
| Climate Zones | Temperate, mediterranean, subtropical |
|---|---|
| USDA Hardiness Zones | 3–11 (grown as an annual) |
| Frost Tolerance | Very Low |
| Light Conditions | Full Sun to Half Shade |
Sunlight & Light Exposure
Optimal Light Setup
Full sun suits it where summers aren't extreme; half shade is preferable in hot climates (including hardiness zone 10b–11) both to delay premature flowering and ease heat stress.
Shade & Heat Management
Sensitive to high temperatures, and leaves are noted to turn bitter in hot zone 10b–11 summers, so afternoon shade and mulch are worthwhile in hot climates.
Temperature Extremes & Hardiness
USDA Hardiness & Regional Limits
Grown as an annual across zone 3 through 11 - freezing winters kill it outright everywhere in this range, so planting is timed to start after the last frost (or through the mild winter itself in hardiness zone 10b–11).
Frost Sensitivity
Frost-tender; even a light frost ends the growing season.
Extreme Heat Tolerance
Sensitive to high heat, with leaf quality (bitterness) as well as growth affected in the hottest climates.
Frost-Free Growing Season
As an annual leaf crop killed by frost, the length of the frost-free window largely sets how long a harvest season a given climate can offer.
Wind, Humidity & Microclimate
Humidity Preferences
Appreciates moist soil and ambient humidity through the growing season, particularly during establishment.
Growing in Pots, Balconies & Indoors
Shiso is a leafy annual herb (0.5-1 m). The grower rates it as not a houseplant, but it grows well in pots on a sunny to part-shaded patio or balcony, and a bright sill can raise a smaller leafy plant.
Quick Details
- Container Size: 5-12 L (1.5-3 gal) pot
- Indoor Suitability: Not a houseplant; a bright, sunny sill can grow leaves
- Best Spot: Full sun, or part shade to delay flowering; part shade in very hot climates
- Soil & Drainage: Rich, well-aerated, free-draining mix
- Watering in Pots: Keep the mix moist – more water in heat; let excess drain
Indoors & On the Windowsill
- Not a houseplant: The grower rates it unsuitable indoors; it wants open-air light.
- Windowsill: A very bright, sunny sill can grow a smaller leafy plant for the kitchen.
On a Balcony or Patio
- Sun to part shade: It grows fast in a sunny or lightly shaded spot; part shade helps delay flowering and keep the leaves coming.
- Light & heat: Walls, railings and paving reflect heat and wind dries pots fast, so check moisture often and water more in hot spells.
Choosing the Pot, Soil & Long-Term Care
- Pot & drainage: A 5-12 L pot with good drainage; the grower advises against a water-filled saucer.
- Potting mix: Rich, well-aerated and free-draining – potting mix, or peat with perlite or vermiculite.
- Feeding: Container plants use up food faster because watering washes nutrients out – feed a little and often through the growing season.
- Repotting: If kept on as a perennial in mild areas, refresh the soil about every two years.
Fertilizing & Feeding
A light feeder: a single modest, growth-focused feeding once the young plant is well leafed-out is generally enough, since the goal is tender, flavorful leaves rather than heavy flowering.
Quick Fertilizing Specs
| Feeding Level | Light feeder |
|---|---|
| Main Nutrient Priority | Nitrogen-forward to favor tender leaf growth over flowering |
| Best Feeding Period | After the seedling is well established with several sets of true leaves |
| Organic Options | Compost or aged organic matter worked into rich soil at planting |
| Reduce/Stop Feeding | Ease off feeding as hot weather sets in and the plant shifts toward flowering |
| Micronutrients | Usually unnecessary in organic-rich soil; correct only diagnosed issues |
| Soil pH | Slightly acidic |
Feeding by Growth Stage
Establishment after transplant or germination
Help the young plant root in and put out its first true leaves without added stress.
| Nutrient direction | Minimal feeding is usually enough; rich, organic-matter-amended soil carries most early growth. |
|---|---|
| Timing | From transplanting or germination through the first weeks of establishment. |
| Frequency | Rarely needs supplemental feeding beyond what enriched planting soil provides. |
| Fertilizer types | Compost or aged organic matter mixed into the planting soil |
| Precautions | Avoid heavy feeding on young seedlings, which can scorch tender roots and encourage weak, leggy growth. |
Active leaf production before hot weather
Build a full flush of tender, flavorful leaves before summer heat changes their taste and texture.
| Nutrient direction | A nitrogen-forward feeding once the plant is carrying several sets of true leaves pushes leafy growth and delays the shift toward flowering. |
|---|---|
| Timing | Once the young plant is clearly established and actively leafing out, ideally ahead of the hottest part of the season. |
| Frequency | A single light feeding is typically enough to sustain leaf production, with organic matter renewed as needed. |
| Fertilizer types | A nitrogen-leaning complete fertilizer suited to leafy greens, Compost or other organic matter as a top-dressing |
| Precautions | Choose a fertilizer aimed at foliage rather than bloom; leaves harvested during high heat can turn bitter regardless of feeding. |
Nutrient Deficiency Signs & Corrections
Older leaves turn pale green to yellow and new leaves emerge noticeably smaller.
| Possible causes | low available soil nitrogen, nutrient leaching from frequent watering, sandy or organic-matter-poor soil |
|---|---|
| Appears first on | older, lower leaves |
| What to check | recent feeding history, soil organic matter and texture, watering frequency and drainage |
| Possible correction | Apply a nitrogen-forward complete fertilizer suited to leafy crops and refresh organic matter in the soil. |
Leaves taste noticeably bitter and growth slows or bolts toward flowering during hot weather.
| Possible causes | high temperatures triggering the plant’s natural shift toward flowering, water stress compounding heat stress, an underlying nutrient imbalance unrelated to heat |
|---|---|
| Appears first on | leaves harvested during the hottest part of the season |
| What to check | recent temperatures and heat exposure, soil moisture consistency, whether feeding and watering have otherwise been adequate |
| Possible correction | Provide afternoon shade and consistent watering during heat; harvest earlier in the season for the mildest leaf flavor rather than relying on extra feeding. |
Leaf edges brown or scorch and growth stalls despite regular watering.
| Possible causes | fertilizer salt buildup in the root zone, overfeeding beyond the plant’s light demand, under-watering that concentrates salts |
|---|---|
| Appears first on | leaf margins and tips |
| What to check | how much and how often fertilizer has been applied, watering consistency, container or bed drainage |
| Possible correction | Stop feeding, water thoroughly to flush salts, and resume only with light, occasional feeding. |
Pruning, Training & Seasonal Maintenance
Shiso is a soft-stemmed annual herb grown mainly for its leaves, so it needs little formal pruning – the source notes explicitly that it doesn’t need pruning unless you are harvesting leaves or shaping the plant. In practice, though, regular pinching and stem-harvesting through the growing season is the main way this plant is managed: it keeps the plant bushy, delays flowering (which turns the leaves bitter, especially in hot climates), and doubles as the leaf harvest itself.
Quick Pruning & Maintenance Specs
| Pruning Tolerance | Moderate (light, ongoing pinching/harvest) |
| Primary Pruning Window | Spring–summer, ongoing through the growing season |
| Secondary Maintenance Window | Autumn tidy-up as the annual plant declines |
| Typical Frequency | Continuous light pinching/harvest |
| Main Objective | Encourage bushy leaf production, delay bolting, harvest leaves |
| Young Plant Priority | Pinch growing tips once several leaf pairs are established, to build a bushy plant |
| Mature Plant Priority | Continued harvest-pinching; remove flower spikes if leaf production/quality is the goal |
| Best Tool Type | Precision snips |
Pruning by Plant Age & Size
Newly Established
Leave young plants unpinched until they have several sets of true leaves; avoid disturbing very young transplants, which the source notes can struggle after transplanting.
Young / Formative
Pinch the growing tip once the plant is established to encourage branching into a bushier plant with more harvestable leaves rather than one tall stem.
Mature / Established
Harvest by trimming stems with their leaves throughout the season; once flower spikes begin to form, remove them promptly if you want to keep leaf production going and delay the bitterness that sets in once the plant shifts to blooming.
Special Growth to Remove
- Flower spikes – thinning/removing them is recommended unless you intend to save seed, since letting the plant bloom shifts its energy away from leaf production and the leaves become bitter.
- Any leaves showing pest damage (aphids/larvae are noted pests of this species).
Container & Small-Space Pruning
Grows well in containers (5–12 L pots per the source); regular pinching is even more useful in a container to keep the plant compact and productive in a limited root volume, and to prevent it from bolting to flower before you’ve had a full harvest season.
Tools
- Precision snips – the only tool needed, for pinching tips, removing flower spikes, and harvesting stems with leaves.
Tool Hygiene & Disease Risk
Routine: clean, sharp snips are sufficient; no specific transmissible pathogen risk is indicated for this species.
Cut Placement & Technique
Pinch or cut just above a leaf pair to encourage two new shoots to form at that point. When harvesting, cut whole stems with attached leaves rather than stripping individual leaves, as recommended for this plant.
Common Pruning Mistakes
- Letting flower spikes develop and mature, which hastens leaf bitterness, especially in hot climates.
- Never pinching young plants, resulting in a single tall stem with fewer harvestable leaves.
- Heavy cutting back of a stressed, newly transplanted seedling.
When NOT to Prune
Avoid heavy trimming immediately after transplanting, since the source notes this species can struggle to establish after being moved; also avoid harvesting heavily during extreme heat, when the plant is already noted to be sensitive to high temperatures.
Recommended Tools (by task)
- precision_snips – the only tool this plant needs, for pinching, deflowering, and leaf-stem harvest.
Propagation Guide
Shiso (Perilla frutescens var. crispa) is most easily grown from seed, which it also sets and self-sows readily on its own, while stem cuttings offer a quicker way to bulk up plants for the current season. Seed generally reproduces the variety reasonably well, and propagation overall is easy.
Quick Propagation Specs
| Best Propagation Method | Seed |
| Alternative Methods | Stem cuttings |
| Propagation Difficulty | Easy |
| Seed True-to-Type | Usually true-to-type (leaf color/crimping can vary somewhat in self-sown seedlings) |
| Vegetative True-to-Type | Yes |
| Best Propagation Season | Sow indoors in winter; take cuttings in early spring |
| Seed Germination Time | 7–30 days for fresh seed |
| Cutting Rooting Time | Typically a few weeks |
| Germination Temperature | 10–20°C (50–68°F) |
| Seed Sowing Depth | 1–1.5 cm (0.5–0.7 in) |
Growing from Seed
Seed Handling & Viability
Seeds are short-lived, so fresh seed germinates best; keep any saved seed in a cold, dry, dark place until sowing.
Dormancy & Pre-Sowing Treatment
Soak seed in water for 12–24 hours before sowing to improve germination.
Sowing Season
Sow indoors over winter for a spring start; sow/plant out in spring after the last frost in hardiness zone 3–10a, or in mid-winter in zone 10b–11.
Sowing Depth & Orientation
Sow about 1–1.5 cm (0.5–0.7 in) deep; the seed does not strictly need burying, but a light covering helps hold moisture. Space plants roughly 30 x 30 cm (12 x 12 in) apart.
Germination Conditions
Keep the medium consistently moist and humid in a sunny spot; germination temperature can range 10–20°C (50–68°F).
Germination Time
7–30 days for fresh seed.
Seedling Care
Keep seedlings in moist soil in full sun; during heat waves add mulch around the plant, since the species is sensitive to high temperatures.
Stem Cuttings
Cutting Type
Softwood tip cuttings from young growth.
Best Timing
Begin cuttings in early spring from stock started indoors over winter; plant rooted cuttings outdoors about 2 weeks after the last frost.
Cutting Preparation
Take a healthy non-flowering shoot tip and insert into a moist, light growing medium.
Rooting Setup
Keep the medium moist and the cutting warm, sheltered and humid until roots form; harden off before planting outdoors.
Rooting Hormone
Not necessary for this soft-stemmed herb, though a light dip can speed rooting.
Rooting Time
Typically a few weeks under warm, humid conditions.
Bloom & Edible Flower Guide
Quick Details
- Bloom Season: Summer into autumn, as the days shorten
- Time to First Bloom: In its single season — this annual runs up to flower late in summer
- Flower Appearance: Tiny flowers along a slender spike; the flowering stalk may be green or purple to match the leaves
- Edibility: Edible — the young flowering spikes are a prized garnish in Japanese cooking
Detailed Blooming Overview
Shiso, the crinkle-leaved perilla, flowers late in the season, sending up delicate spikes of small flowers as the days shorten. As with all perilla, flowering is the signal that the leaves are past their best, so growers who want tender leaves pinch the spikes out early. Those who value the flowering spikes let a few come, since the young spikes are an elegant edible garnish in their own right.
Flower Characteristics
- Very small flowers set in a one-sided spike at the stem tips.
- The spike may be green or purple, echoing the leaf colour of the plant.
- Nectar draws bees and flies.
Bloom Care & Thinning
- Thinning the bloom: If you are not saving seed, pinch out the spikes as they form to keep the leaves tender and extend the harvest.
- Using the flowers: Pick the young flowering spikes and use them as a delicate garnish.
- Pollination: Bees and flies visit the flowers; left to mature, the plant self-seeds freely.
Fruit & Uses
Shiso (Perilla frutescens var. crispa) is grown for its aromatic, deltoid, serrated-edge leaves (green, purple, or bicolor), which are eaten as a fresh herb or cooked; the tender young flower spikes are also traditionally used as a garnish. No cooking is required for the leaves, though the site’s own uses lean toward cooked preparations such as stir-fry and quiche as well as salad.
Quick Edible Specs
| Edible Parts | Leaves (main); flower buds/spikes (garnish, secondary use) |
|---|---|
| Main Use(s) | Culinary herb – cooked (stir-fry, quiche) or raw (salad, garnish) |
| Eaten Raw or Cooked | Both – raw in salads/as a garnish, or cooked into stir-fries and quiche |
| Preparation Required | None beyond washing |
| Harvest Season | Spring, summer, autumn; prune off flower stalks once blooming starts to keep leaf quality up |
| Time to First Harvest | Once the plant is established with a good set of leaves |
| Storage | Best used fresh; leaves wilt quickly and store only briefly refrigerated |
| Safety/Toxicity Caveat | None known for normal culinary use; leaves turn bitter in hot-climate summer heat (hardiness zone 10b-11), which affects flavor rather than safety |
Leaves & Greens
Leaves are deltoid with serrated edges, green or purple (sometimes green on top and purple underneath), and become bitter under high summer heat in hot climates. Harvest by trimming stems with the attached leaves through spring, summer and autumn; once the plant begins to bloom, pruning off the flower stalks helps keep the leaves from turning bitter. Leaves are used cooked – stir-fried or in dishes like quiche – and raw in salads.
Flowers & Flower Buds
The small green-or-purple flower spikes that follow the leaves are, in shiso specifically, also commonly used as a fresh garnish once picked young and tender; this is a well-established secondary use of this variety alongside the leaf harvest, kept here as general guidance rather than a site-documented detail.
Preparation, Uses & Safety
Leaves need no special preparation beyond washing; use fresh in salads or cooked into stir-fries and savory dishes such as quiche. If the leaves turn bitter in hot summer conditions, harvesting younger growth or pruning off flower stalks can help. No toxicity or safety caveats apply to normal culinary use.
Pests, Diseases & Troubleshooting
Shiso is an aromatic Lamiaceae herb that is fairly robust but not immune: its soft leaves attract aphids, flea beetles, caterpillars and slugs, and it is notably vulnerable to Perilla downy mildew and rust plus fungal leaf spots in humid weather. Because the leaves are eaten, favour hygiene, hand-picking and organic controls over sprays.
Quick Troubleshooting Overview
| Issue / Pest | Main Symptom | Primary Solution |
|---|---|---|
| Aphids | Sticky, curled shoots and leaf undersides, honeydew | Hose off; insecticidal soap; encourage beneficials |
| Flea beetles | Tiny round ‘shot-hole’ pits in the leaves | Row cover, sticky traps, keep beds weed-free |
| Caterpillars / larvae | Chewed, holed leaves and frass | Hand-pick; Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) for outbreaks |
| Slugs & snails | Ragged holes and slime on low leaves | Hand-pick at night, barriers, iron-phosphate bait |
| Downy mildew | Yellow blotches above, grey-purple mould beneath | Airflow, water at base, remove affected leaves |
| Rust / leaf spot | Rusty pustules or brown spots on leaves | Remove foliage, improve spacing, copper fungicide |
Common Pests & Management
- Aphids (Aphidoidea (incl. Myzus persicae)):
- Symptoms: Colonies of soft-bodied insects on tender shoots and leaf undersides, causing curl, honeydew, sooty mould and slowed growth; they can also vector viruses.
- Prevention & Control: Rinse off with water, encourage ladybirds, lacewings and parasitic wasps, and use insecticidal soap on the undersides for heavy colonies—preferring rinsing since the leaves are eaten.
- Flea beetles (Chrysomelidae (Alticini)):
- Symptoms: Tiny jumping beetles that riddle leaves with small round ‘shot-hole’ pits, worst on young plants in warm, dry weather.
- Prevention & Control: Protect seedlings with floating row cover, keep beds weed-free, use sticky traps and a diatomaceous-earth or kaolin-clay barrier, and grow plants on strongly to outpace damage.
- Caterpillars and larvae (Lepidoptera larvae (loopers, cutworms, armyworms)):
- Symptoms: Irregular chewed holes, notched leaf edges and dark frass, sometimes with cut-off seedlings at the soil line.
- Prevention & Control: Hand-pick and check leaf undersides, use collars against cutworms, encourage birds and parasitic wasps, and apply Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) for persistent outbreaks.
- Slugs and snails (Gastropoda):
- Symptoms: Ragged holes and silvery slime trails on low leaves, especially in damp, shady, mulched beds.
- Prevention & Control: Hand-pick after dark, remove damp hiding places, use grit or copper barriers and beer traps, and scatter iron-phosphate bait if needed.
- Spider mites and whiteflies (Tetranychidae / Aleyrodidae):
- Symptoms: Mites cause fine stippling and webbing in hot, dry spells; whiteflies rise in clouds and leave honeydew, mostly under cover.
- Prevention & Control: Raise humidity and hose the foliage for mites, use yellow sticky traps for whitefly, and treat either with insecticidal soap or horticultural oil if they persist.
Diseases & Fungal Issues
- Perilla downy mildew (Peronospora spp.):
- Symptoms: Angular yellow blotches on the upper leaf with a grey-to-purple downy mould beneath in cool, wet, humid weather; a significant and now-widespread shiso disease.
- Treatment & Management: Space plants for airflow, water at the base, avoid wetting the foliage, remove and destroy affected leaves, and use resistant seed and a copper-based fungicide where pressure is high.
- Rust (Puccinia / Coleosporium spp.):
- Symptoms: Rusty-orange to brown pustules on leaf undersides with yellow flecking above, causing leaf drop in humid conditions.
- Treatment & Management: Improve spacing and airflow, remove infected leaves, and apply a sulfur or copper-based fungicide only if it spreads.
- Leaf spot / blight (Cercospora / Alternaria spp.):
- Symptoms: Brown-to-black spots, sometimes with yellow halos, that merge and brown the leaves in warm, wet weather.
- Treatment & Management: Keep foliage dry, improve airflow, clear debris, and rotate plantings; copper fungicide helps in persistent wet spells.
- Root and stem rot (Pythium / Rhizoctonia / Fusarium spp.):
- Symptoms: Damping-off of seedlings and wilting, blackened stem bases on plants in wet, poorly drained soil.
- Treatment & Management: Sow into well-drained mix, avoid overwatering and overcrowding, and remove affected plants.
Growing Difficulties & Abiotic Problems
- Bolting / early flowering:
- Cause & Symptoms: Long days and heat push shiso to flower, after which leaf quality and flavour decline.
- Correction Strategy: Sow in succession, pinch out flower spikes to prolong leaf harvest, and harvest young leaves regularly.
- Sunscorch and drought stress:
- Cause & Symptoms: Intense sun on dry soil scorches and crisps the tender leaves.
- Correction Strategy: Grow in full sun to light afternoon shade with consistent moisture and mulch to hold soil water.
- Nutrient issues / pale leaves:
- Cause & Symptoms: Poor, dry or waterlogged soil yellows and weakens the foliage.
- Correction Strategy: Grow in fertile, moisture-retentive soil with a balanced organic feed, and correct drainage.
What Helps – Products & Tools
Because the leaves are eaten, lean on hygiene and hand controls. Keep floating row cover and diatomaceous earth or kaolin clay for flea beetles, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) for caterpillars, iron-phosphate bait for slugs, insecticidal soap for aphids/mites/whitefly, and a copper-based fungicide for downy mildew, rust and leaf spot. Good spacing and dry foliage prevent most disease.
