Plant Profile & Key Characteristics
Overview: Oxalis purpurea (purple wood-sorrel) is a low bulbous perennial geophyte 10-30 cm tall that goes dormant in summer. It is grown as an ornamental for its large flowers over clover-like foliage.
Quick Specifications
| Specification | Attribute |
|---|---|
| Plant Type / Life Cycle | Perennial (geophyte, summer-dormant) |
| Foliage Type | Deciduous (summer-dormant) |
| Mature Size | 10-30 cm (4-12 in) |
| Growth Rate | Moderate to fast |
| Root System | Bulbous geophyte |
| Toxicity | Contains oxalic acid – edible only in small amounts; large quantities can be harmful (soluble oxalates) |
| Hardiness | USDA zones 6-10 |
Growth Form & Structure
- Height & Spread: 10-30 cm (4-12 in); grows well in pots and indoors as a houseplant (start pots at ~3-6 L / 0.8-1.6 gal).
- Growth Habit & Form: Low clump-forming geophyte from small bulbs; can spread and become invasive.
- Lifespan & Maturity: Perennial that returns and multiplies from its bulbs each season.
Anatomy & Physical Features
- Leaves & Foliage: Green or purple obcordate (heart-shaped) leaflets in threes forming a clover-like radial leaf.
- Flower Characteristics: Purple, pink or yellow five-petalled flowers about 2.5 cm, in clusters (full detail in the Bloom guide).
Primary Uses & Landscape Value
- Functional & Ornamental Roles: Ornamental container, rockery and groundcover geophyte.
Care Guide: Planting, Soil & Watering
Overview: Oxalis purpurea (Purple woodsorrel) is a bulbous, summer-dormant geophyte that grows from small bulbs in rich, well-draining soil kept evenly moist during its active season. It appreciates regular moisture while in leaf, then rests through its dormancy.
Quick Care Requirements
| Requirement | Ideal Condition |
|---|---|
| Planting Season | Spring to summer in warm zones; autumn to winter where temperatures drop below freezing |
| Growth Rate | Moderate to Fast |
| Soil Type | Rich, well-draining soil that holds some moisture (peat / organic) |
| Water Need | Moderate to High – keep evenly moist during active growth |
Planting & Establishment
- Best Planting Season: Plant at the start of the growing season – spring to summer in mild climates, or autumn to winter where hard frosts occur; set bulbs 2–5 cm (1–2 in) deep.
- How to Plant:
- Hole Preparation: Dig the hole noticeably larger than the root ball – roughly two to three times its size – so the roots settle into loose soil; bulbs go 2–5 cm (1–2 in) deep.
- Soil Amendments: Mix organic matter, humus and dried leaves into the backfill for a rich, moisture-retentive but still free-draining bed, then mulch the surface to hold moisture.
- Planting Depth: Set the root ball at soil level and firm the soil gently – not too hard, but firm enough that the plant does not sink when watered.
- Growth Speed & Expectations: Growth is moderate to fast during the active season; the clump fills out and can be lifted and divided when dormant.
Soil, Watering & Drainage Care
- Soil Mix & Drainage Needs: Use a rich, well-draining mix that still retains some moisture; in containers use rich soil with organic matter and drainage holes, and the bulbs can be lifted and stored during dormancy. It grows in full sun to full shade with light.
- Watering Schedule & Technique:
- Young / Newly Planted: Water daily for about the first two weeks after planting (preferably in the morning) to settle the plant, keeping the soil consistently moist.
- Established: Keep the soil evenly moist through active growth, watering deeply but never leaving it waterlogged.
- Seasonal Adjustments: Reduce watering as the foliage dies back into dormancy and keep it on the dry side while resting; resume regular watering when new growth appears.
Climate, Light & Hardiness
Oxalis purpurea is a winter-growing geophyte suited to Mediterranean, subtropical, and temperate climates, going summer-dormant and regrowing each cool season. It is shade-tolerant, growing from full sun through to full shade with adequate light, and can also be grown as a houseplant, though it is hardy outdoors only from USDA zone 6 through 10.
Quick Climate Specifications
| Climate Zones | Mediterranean, subtropical, temperate |
|---|---|
| USDA Hardiness Zones | 6–10 |
| Light Conditions | Full sun to full shade (needs some light even in shade) |
Sunlight & Light Exposure
Optimal Light Setup
Tolerates a wide light range from full sun to full shade during its growing season, provided shaded spots still receive some light.
Temperature Extremes & Hardiness
USDA Hardiness & Regional Limits
Hardy from zone 6 through 10, wider and somewhat more cold-tolerant than some other Oxalis species; grows through the cool season and goes summer-dormant.
Cold Damage & Winter Protection
Needs at least a month with temperatures under about 5°C (41°F) to properly break summer dormancy and support normal autumn–spring growth and flowering.
Indoor Growing Note
Suitable as an indoor container plant where outdoor winters are too cold; a cool spot or period outdoors can still supply the dormancy-breaking chill it needs.
Growing in Pots, Balconies & Indoors
Oxalis purpurea (Oxalis purpurea) is a compact, bulbous wood-sorrel that is tailor-made for pots – small, shallow-rooted and tidy, it suits a windowsill, a small container or the front of a balcony display. The grower confirms it grows well indoors, and it makes a genuinely good houseplant – a neat, low foliage-and-flower plant for a bright spot.
Quick Details
- Container Size: About 3-6 L (0.8-1.6 gal) to start (the grower’s guide), potting up as it fills
- Indoor Suitability: Good houseplant for a bright spot
- Best Spot: Full sun / half shade / full shade with light
- Soil & Drainage: Rich, free-draining mix with drainage holes; drainage matters for the bulbs
- Watering in Pots: Average to generous while in leaf; ease right off as it dies back into dormancy
Indoors & On the Windowsill
- As a houseplant: The grower grows it indoors successfully. Give it a bright windowsill; it also tolerates lower light, though flowering and leaf colour are best in good light.
- Dormancy indoors: Oxalis naturally rests after flowering – foliage dies back and the pot looks bare. Keep it cool and nearly dry through dormancy, then resume watering to bring it back.
- Safety: Oxalis foliage contains oxalates and can upset pets or children if eaten in quantity – site pots out of reach and do not treat it as edible.
On a Balcony or Patio
- Light & shelter: Happy on a bright balcony or patio in a small pot; being low and light it is easily blown over, so group pots or use a heavier container in exposed spots.
- Watering: Small pots dry quickly in sun and wind – check often while the plant is in active leaf.
Choosing the Pot, Soil & Long-Term Care
- Pot & drainage: Start around 3-6 L with good drainage holes (the grower stresses drainage for the bulbs). Use a pot with strong drainage holes and skip a standing water saucer – constantly wet feet are the quickest route to root rot.
- Potting mix: A rich, free-draining mix with organic matter, as the grower advises.
- Potting up & soil refresh: Each time the plant fills its pot, move up a size until it reaches the size you want; because potting mix loses vigour over time, refresh part of the soil when you pot on.
- Feeding: Potted plants exhaust their food faster than those in the ground, as watering leaches nutrients out; feed lightly but more regularly through the growing season.
Grower’s Container Tip
- Pot up in stages: The grower starts in a small pot (about 3-6 L) and steps up to a larger one each time the plant fills the current one, until it reaches the desired size – this keeps the soil fresh and makes care efficient. In the final large pot, swap out part of the soil every few years; from the side of a big pot it is easy to replace some soil without disturbing the whole plant.
- Lift the bulbs for dormancy: In the dormant season you can lift the bulbs out of the soil, store them, and replant when growth restarts.
Fertilizing & Feeding
Purple woodsorrel is a summer-dormant bulb that stays healthiest on light, balanced feeding during its cool-season growth – this species is more prone to powdery mildew, and lush, over-fed foliage can make that worse.
Quick Fertilizing Specs
| Feeding Level | Light – a compact bulb that needs only modest feeding while actively growing |
|---|---|
| young_feeding | Light, balanced feeding as newly planted bulbs settle in and put out their first leaves |
| mature_feeding | Light, balanced feeding through the cool-season foliage and bloom period |
| Main Nutrient Priority | Balanced feeding is enough – this plant does not need heavy nitrogen to grow or flower well |
| Best Feeding Period | Through active leaf growth in the cooler months, before summer dormancy sets in |
| Organic Options | A light topdressing of compost worked around the clump as growth resumes |
| Micronutrients | No routine micronutrient program is typically needed for this small bulb |
| Soil pH | Prefers well-drained soil and tolerates a fairly wide pH range |
| Reduce/Stop Feeding | Feeding is unnecessary once foliage yellows and the clump goes summer-dormant |
Feeding by Growth Stage
Establishment After Planting
Support root and early leaf development as newly planted bulbs get established.
| Nutrient direction | A light, balanced feeding worked into well-drained soil at planting supports steady early rooting and leaf growth. |
|---|---|
| Timing | At planting and through the first flush of leaves. |
| Frequency | Light feeding is enough while the bulbs are still settling in. |
| Fertilizer types | A balanced, complete fertilizer worked lightly into the soil at planting, Organic matter such as compost blended into the planting hole |
| Precautions | Avoid placing concentrated fertilizer in direct contact with the bulbs, which can cause damage. |
Active Growth and Bloom
Support the cool-season foliage and clustered purple, pink, or yellow flowers this bulb is grown for.
| Nutrient direction | Continued light, balanced feeding through active growth is enough to keep foliage and flowering healthy. |
|---|---|
| Timing | Through the cool-season active growth and bloom period. |
| Frequency | Light, infrequent feeding through this stage is generally enough. |
| Fertilizer types | A light, balanced feeding applied during active leaf growth, A diluted liquid feed is a gentle option for container-grown clumps |
| Precautions | Avoid lush over-feeding, since dense, soft foliage on this species is more prone to powdery mildew. |
Summer Dormancy
Let the bulb rest through its natural summer-deciduous dormant period.
| Nutrient direction | None – withhold fertilizer once the foliage yellows and the clump enters summer dormancy. |
|---|---|
| Timing | Through summer dormancy, after the foliage dies back. |
| Frequency | No feeding at this stage. |
| Fertilizer types | No feeding at this stage – the dormant bulb has no active leaves to support |
| Precautions | Do not fertilize dormant bulbs; resume light feeding only once new leaf growth appears in the cooler months. |
Nutrient Deficiency Signs & Corrections
Leaves look pale and undersized with weak, sparse growth during the active season.
| Possible causes | Nitrogen deficiency, Very poor, depleted soil around the bulbs, Bulbs planted too deep or in poorly draining soil restricting root function |
|---|---|
| Appears first on | Overall leaf color and size during active growth. |
| What to check | Soil richness and drainage, Planting depth of the bulbs, Recent feeding history |
| Possible correction | A light, balanced feeding at the start of active growth is usually enough to restore healthy leaf color. |
New leaves emerge pale to yellowish while the veins stay noticeably greener.
| Possible causes | Iron deficiency (chlorosis), High soil pH limiting iron availability, Waterlogged or poorly aerated soil |
|---|---|
| Appears first on | Newest leaves. |
| What to check | Soil pH, Drainage in the planting area or container, Whether yellowing is specific to new growth |
| Possible correction | Correct soil pH toward a more favorable range and apply a chelated iron product per its label if chlorosis is confirmed. |
Flowering is sparse or weak and older leaf margins take on a scorched, dry look.
| Possible causes | Potassium deficiency, Bulbs that are undersized, crowded, or overdue for division, Inconsistent watering through the active growth period |
|---|---|
| Appears first on | Older leaf margins and overall flower production. |
| What to check | Bulb size and how long since the clump was last divided, Watering consistency during active growth, Recent feeding history |
| Possible correction | A balanced feeding with adequate potassium, along with dividing overcrowded bulbs, typically improves flowering. |
Pruning, Training & Seasonal Maintenance
Oxalis purpurea is a summer-dormant, winter-growing bulb that forms a clover-leaved clump 10–30 cm across and, unlike some relatives, tolerates full shade and is commonly grown indoors as well as outdoors. It has no woody stems, so pruning is limited to deadheading through its autumn-to-spring flowering period and clearing foliage once it browns at the start of summer dormancy. Cutting timing has no effect on next season’s bloom (flowers arise from the bulb), but removing green leaves early reduces the energy stored for the following growth cycle.
Quick Pruning & Maintenance Specs
| Pruning Tolerance | Low – grooming only, no structural cuts |
| Primary Pruning Window | Autumn through spring, during active growth and bloom |
| Secondary Maintenance Window | Once foliage yellows heading into summer dormancy |
| Typical Frequency | Light, ongoing while in bloom |
| Main Objective | Tidiness and reducing self-seeding |
| Young Plant Priority | Leave undisturbed while the clump establishes |
| Mature Plant Priority | Regular deadheading; clear foliage only after it yellows |
| Best Tool Type | Fingers or fine precision snips |
| Avoid Heavy Pruning During | While foliage is green and actively growing |
Pruning by Plant Age & Size
Newly Established
Leave a newly planted bulb or offset undisturbed through its first season of rooting and leafing out.
Young / Formative
No structural training applies – there is no framework to shape. Begin light deadheading once flowering starts.
Mature / Established
Deadhead through the bloom season and remove spent foliage as it yellows heading into dormancy. Flag a thinning, poorly flowering clump for division at dormancy rather than trying to renew it with cuts.
Seasonal Pruning Schedule
Growth & Bloom Season (Autumn–Spring)
Objective: neat appearance and limited reseeding. Remove faded flower stalks at their base; leave green foliage untouched. Deadheading does not reduce future flowers, since these are produced continuously from the bulb through the season.
Pre-Dormancy (as leaves yellow)
Objective: clean entry into summer rest. Clear only foliage that has already yellowed or dried; leaves still green should stay in place to keep feeding the bulb.
Special Growth to Remove
- Spent flower stems, deadheaded at the base.
- Yellowed or dried leaves once dormancy begins.
- Noted as invasive in cultivation – deadhead before seed set to limit spread where that is a concern.
Container & Small-Space Pruning
Because Oxalis purpurea tolerates full shade and can be grown indoors, container plants may stay in leaf on a different schedule than garden plants receiving more light and heat – groom by the state of the foliage (yellowing) rather than by calendar date. Deadhead promptly in pots since spent flowers are more noticeable at this scale, and once the plant does go dormant, hold back watering and let the pot rest dry.
Tools
- Precision snips for flower stalks and soft leaves.
- Fingers for pinching off individual spent blooms.
Tool Hygiene & Disease Risk
Routine – clean, sharp tools are sufficient; this species’ pest profile (aphids on related plants, occasional fungal issues) is not typically spread through grooming cuts.
Cut Placement & Technique
Remove flower stalks at their base rather than partway up. Take dead leaves off at their base once fully yellowed, being careful not to disturb the crown or nearby healthy growth.
Heavy Pruning & Rejuvenation
Not applicable – there is no wood to hard-prune. Rejuvenate a declining clump by lifting and dividing bulbs during dormancy instead.
Post-Pruning Care
No extra fertilizing is needed after routine deadheading. After cutting back yellowed foliage for dormancy, withhold water through the rest period.
Common Pruning Mistakes
- Removing green leaves before they yellow naturally, weakening the bulb.
- Assuming full-shade or indoor plants follow the same grooming calendar as sun-grown plants, rather than reading the foliage.
- Watering through dormancy instead of letting the bulb rest dry.
When NOT to Prune
Do not remove green, actively growing foliage. Avoid disturbing the plant beyond simple deadheading while it is in bloom, and do not prune or disturb the bulb during its dormant rest.
Recommended Tools (by task)
- Deadheading & foliage cleanup → precision_snips – precise removal of thin stalks and soft leaves without damaging the compact clump.
Propagation Guide
Oxalis purpurea is best propagated by dividing and replanting its bulbs during summer dormancy, which the site itself says is easier and more dependable than starting from seed. Because the bulbs can be small and deeply buried, digging them out without damage takes care, making bulb propagation Moderate rather than simply easy.
Quick Propagation Specs
| Best Propagation Method | Bulb division (during dormancy) |
| Alternative Methods | Seed |
| Propagation Difficulty | Moderate – bulbs are small, can sit deep, and are easily lost or damaged when dug |
| Seed True-to-Type | Usually true-to-type (species-level, not a named hybrid) |
| Vegetative True-to-Type | Yes |
| Best Propagation Season | Spring above 5°C (41°F), or autumn where winter temperatures fall below 0°C (32°F) |
| Seed Germination Time | 3-5 weeks |
| Seed Sowing Depth | 0.5 cm (0.25 in) |
Growing from Seed
Seed Handling & Viability
Store seed in a dry, dark place, ideally refrigerated, until sowing.
Dormancy & Pre-Sowing Treatment
The site notes a chilling requirement of at least one month below 5°C (41°F); giving seed (and dormant bulbs) this cold period helps trigger normal growth for this winter-growing, summer-dormant species.
Sowing Season
Spring above 5°C (41°F), or autumn where winter temperatures fall below 0°C (32°F).
Sowing Depth & Orientation
Sow about 0.5 cm (0.25 in) deep, spaced roughly 2 x 3 cm (0.8-1.2 in) apart; the site notes seeds do need to be buried, not left on the surface.
Germination Conditions
Keep the soil moist with high humidity; do not let it dry out.
Germination Time
3-5 weeks.
Seedling Care
Grow seedlings on in moist soil with high humidity and half shade.
Rhizomes, Tubers, Bulbs & Corms
Bulb Division: best carried out in the dormant season by separating bulbs from the parent clump. The site flags the main practical difficulty: bulbs are small, can sit quite deep, and are easy to miss, so dig for them gently and avoid letting them dry out while lifting – if bulbs can’t be located, the whole plant can instead be dug up and divided by hand, though mishandling risks losing the plant. Replant divided bulbs about 2-5 cm (1-2 in) deep in moist, rich soil at the same spring/autumn timing above, and keep them watered in.
Bloom & Edible Flower Guide
Quick Details
- Bloom Season: Autumn, winter, and spring (its main growing season)
- Flower Appearance: Five-petalled flowers about 2-4 cm across in purple, pink, or yellow, the petals fused at the base; borne in clusters and closing in dull light
- Edibility: The flowers are edible with a tangy, lemony taste – best enjoyed in small amounts, as Oxalis is high in oxalic acid
Detailed Blooming Overview
Oxalis purpurea, the purple woodsorrel, is a cool-season bloomer that flowers through autumn, winter, and spring while dying back over summer. The cheerful cup-shaped flowers open wide in sunshine and fold up on dull days or in the evening, sitting just above the clover-like leaves.
Flower Characteristics
- Five petals fused at the base, roughly 2-4 cm across, in purple, pink, or yellow.
- Carried in clusters; open in sun and close in low light.
Bloom Care & Thinning
- Encouraging bloom: Give it a bright, sunny spot – the flowers only open fully in good light.
- Using the flowers: Tangy and edible in small quantities; go easy because of the oxalic acid content.
Pests, Diseases & Troubleshooting
Overview: Oxalis purpurea (purple wood sorrel) is a bulb/tuber-forming wood sorrel whose signature disease is a bright orange rust, alongside powdery mildew and the sap-sucking insects – aphids, spider mites and whitefly – that trouble soft-leaved plants; underground, bulbs and tubers rot readily if kept wet in dormancy. Airy, evenly-drained culture and prompt removal of rusted leaves keep it healthy.
Quick Troubleshooting Overview
| Issue / Pest | Main Symptom | Primary Solution |
|---|---|---|
| Oxalis rust | Bright orange pustules on leaf undersides | Remove infected leaves, improve airflow |
| Powdery mildew | White powdery coating on leaves | Airflow, avoid wet foliage, sulfur/bicarb spray |
| Aphids | Sticky, curled leaves and stems; honeydew | Water jet, insecticidal soap |
| Spider mites | Fine stippling and webbing in dry heat | Raise humidity, rinse, neem/soap |
| Whitefly & fungus gnats | White flies / gnats around potted plants | Sticky traps, let soil dry, soap/neem |
| Bulb / root rot | Mushy bulbs; failure to sprout | Dry dormancy, gritty mix, discard soft bulbs |
Common Pests & Management
- Aphids (Aphididae):
- Symptoms: Soft green, grey or black insects clustered on tender leaves, stems and flower stalks, causing curling, sticky honeydew and sooty mould, and able to spread viruses.
- Prevention & Control: Rinse off with a firm water spray and encourage ladybirds and lacewings; control ants. Use insecticidal soap or neem oil on stubborn colonies, covering leaf undersides and growing tips.
- Spider mites (Tetranychus urticae):
- Symptoms: Fine pale stippling and a dusty, bronzed look with delicate webbing on leaf undersides in hot, dry, still air – a frequent problem on indoor Oxalis such as the purple shamrock.
- Prevention & Control: Raise humidity and rinse the foliage regularly, then treat with insecticidal soap or neem oil on the undersides, repeating to catch hatchlings; a spell of cooler, more humid air alone often checks them.
- Whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum):
- Symptoms: Tiny white moth-like insects that rise in a cloud when disturbed, feeding on leaf undersides with honeydew and sooty mould, mostly indoors and under glass.
- Prevention & Control: Use yellow sticky traps to monitor and thin adults and spray insecticidal soap or neem oil on the undersides, repeating; good ventilation limits them.
- Fungus gnats (Bradysia spp.):
- Symptoms: Small dark flies drifting around potted plants; their larvae live in constantly moist compost and can nibble fine roots and tubers of seedlings and weak plants.
- Prevention & Control: Let the top of the compost dry between waterings, use yellow sticky traps for adults, and apply a Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti) or beneficial-nematode drench for larvae in heavy cases.
Diseases & Fungal Issues
- Oxalis rust (Puccinia oxalidis):
- Symptoms: Bright orange to rusty-brown powdery pustules on the undersides of the leaves, with yellow flecking above; heavy infection distorts and drops foliage. The most characteristic disease of the genus.
- Treatment & Management: Pick off and destroy infected leaves at the first pustules, avoid wetting the foliage, and improve air circulation and spacing. Clear fallen debris; where rust is persistent a sulphur fungicide gives protection, but sanitation and airflow are primary.
- Powdery mildew (Erysiphales):
- Symptoms: A white powdery coating on leaves and stems in warm days with humid nights and stagnant air, as flagged in the source, yellowing and weakening affected leaves.
- Treatment & Management: Improve airflow and light, avoid overhead watering and excess nitrogen, and remove affected leaves. A potassium-bicarbonate or sulphur spray helps in stubborn cases.
- Bulb, tuber and root rot (Pythium / Fusarium / Sclerotinia spp.):
- Symptoms: Soft, brown, sometimes foul bulbs and tubers that fail to sprout or rot in growth, plus stem-base collapse, after wet, poorly drained soil or watering through dormancy.
- Treatment & Management: Grow in gritty, free-draining soil, water only in active growth, and keep bulbs and tubers dry during their rest; lift and store dry in wet climates. Discard any soft, rotten storage organs rather than replanting.
- Leaf spot / downy patches (various fungi):
- Symptoms: Brown or purple leaf spots and, in damp weather, downy patches, mostly cosmetic on vigorous plants.
- Treatment & Management: Remove affected leaves, keep foliage dry, and improve airflow; rarely needs more than tidy culture.
Growing Difficulties & Abiotic Problems
- Bulb / tuber rot from overwatering:
- Cause & Symptoms: The main killer: bulbs and tubers left wet – especially during their natural dormancy – rot instead of resting.
- Correction Strategy: Reduce or stop watering as the foliage dies back, use free-draining soil and pots with drainage, and resume watering only when new growth appears.
- Invasiveness / self-seeding spread:
- Cause & Symptoms: Many Oxalis, notably Bermuda buttercup, spread aggressively by bulbils and seed and can become hard-to-eradicate weeds, as the source warns.
- Correction Strategy: Grow contained in pots or confined beds, deadhead before seed sets, and remove stray bulbils carefully; never compost the bulbils of weedy species.
- Dormancy die-back (mistaken for death):
- Cause & Symptoms: Many species naturally collapse and lose their leaves after flowering, which is often mistaken for disease.
- Correction Strategy: Recognise this as normal rest: keep the pot dry and cool through dormancy and growth will return; do not overwater trying to ‘revive’ it.
- Leaf scorch and faded colour:
- Cause & Symptoms: In fierce midday sun tender or coloured forms (e.g. purple shamrock) can scorch, while too little light fades the colour and stretches the plant.
- Correction Strategy: Give bright light but shelter from harsh midday sun for coloured indoor types; for green species, more sun deepens vigour without scorch.
What Helps – Products & Tools
Keep to gentle tools: a water jet, insecticidal soap and neem oil for aphids, mites, whitefly and fungus gnats, yellow sticky traps and a Bti drench for gnats, and a sulphur or potassium-bicarbonate fungicide for the rust and powdery mildew that define this genus. The best preventives are gritty free-draining soil, airflow, dry dormancy and prompt removal of rusted leaves. Note the leaves contain oxalic acid, so keep them from pets and grazing.
